EIGHT THEORIES OF RELIGION Essays - , Term Papers

EIGHT THEORIES OF RELIGION SECOND EDITION Daniel L. Pals University of Miami New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2006 -iii- Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that furtherOxford University's objective of excellence in research,scholarship, and education. Oxford New YorkAuckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong KarachiKuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City NairobiNew Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices inArgentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France GreeceGuatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal SingaporeSouth Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Copyright 2006 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016http://www.oup.com Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pals, Daniel L.Eight theories of religion / by Daniel L. Pals. 2nd ed.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN-13: 0-19-530458-9 (hard : alk. paper)ISBN-13: 0-19-516570-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)ISBN 0-19-530458-6 (hard : alk. paper)ISBN 0-19-516570-5 (pbk. : alk. paper)1. Religion-Study and teaching-History. I. Pals, Daniel L. Eight theories of religion.II. Title. BL41.P36 2005 200'.7-dc22 2005050238 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper -iv- To the memory of my father, Herbert H. Pals (1916-2004). Filiis caritatem maiorem posset nullus pater habere. -v- CONTENTS Preface ix Introduction 3 1. Animism and Magic 18 E. B. TYLOR AND J. G. FRAZER 2. Religion and Personality 53 SIGMUND FREUD 3. Society as Sacred 85 eMILE DURKHEIM 4. Religion as Alienation 118 KARL MARX 5. A Source of Social Action 149 MAX WEBER 6. The Reality of the Sacred 193 MIRCEA ELIADE 7. Society's "Construct of the Heart" 229 E. E. EVANS-PRITCHARD 8. Religion as Cultural System 260 CLIFFORD GEERTZ 9. Conclusion 292 Index 325 -vii- PREFACE Over the years since it was first published, Seven Theories of Religion seems to have found a serviceable niche on the shelf of books that discuss modern efforts to explain and understand religion. Its original purpose was not just to acquaint nonspecialist readers with general patterns of interpretation but to offer a sequence of intellectual portraits centered on theorists at work, reviewing the kinds of evidence they adduce, tracing the forms of argument they advance, and appraising, amid comparison, both the agendas and achievements they promise. The focus fell on certain classic formulationsa sequence of theories that by merit and historical influence have managed to chart the main paths of discussion over the last century and more. Judging by the responses of most readers, that approach has proved helpful, especially to students and their instructors in both college and university classrooms. Accordingly, at the editors' invitation, I agreed to revisit the original and offer certain improvements. Though it (necessarily) carries a new title, this book forms a second edition of Seven Theories , revised and amplified in ways meant to enhance its overall design. While reproducing the main sequence of discussion in the original, the present work seeks to extend its reach by offering 1) a revised introduction, 2) a new chapter on the work of German social theorist Max Weber, 3) associated other revisions that bring Weber into the earlier analyses and comparisons, and 4) a revised and enlarged conclusion that traces patterns of recent inquiry against the background of these classic approaches. In addition, a few minor clarifications suggested by observant critical readers have been included. The addition of Max Weber, now the fifth in the new sequence of eight theorists, merits a brief note of explication. For all his originality and historical importance, Weber was omitted from Seven Theories , mainly because the aim of the book was to present classic theories of a pure, or ideal, type (a rationale Weber himself certainly could have appreciated). Because of their -ix- power to provoke or promote debate, the accent fell on explanations advanced in support of a single overriding thesisas in Freud's finding that all religion reduces to neurosisrather than those that rely on complex multidimensional constructs. The latter, of course, is the kind of approach that Weber preeminently represents; hence he was excluded. Over time, however, more than a few thoughtful readers have come to take a different view of this matter.

Bloody Jack Protagonist Growth Essay

Bloody Jack Protagonist Growth Essay Bloody Jack Protagonist Growth Essay Protagonist Growth In part one of Bloody Jack the protagonist, Mary Faber’s, family dies of Cold and hunger. Mary finds herself in the streets of London with only the clothes on her back, which are soon stolen by a gang of urchins, who then adopt her into their group. Throughout the whole first part of the book there is a great emphasis on how frightened Mary is and how she is just a coward, she cries every other chapter it seems and is understandably distraught about the death of her family. Mary talks with a strong Cockney accent along with the other orphans. The gang teaches Mary how to survive on the streets. Begging, thieving, and running from the law become second nature to her. Then someone murders Charlie and Mary decides life is far too dangerous for a girl, so she disguises herself as a boy and becomes Jack Faber who goes aboard an English ship as a ship’s boy. At the start of part two Jacky and the other ship’s boys are becoming close friends. Jacky me ets a seaman, Liam Delaney, who becomes her sea dad. Liam teaches her the ways of the ship and how to play the pennywhistle. She quickly discovers that she is a natural show-off and enjoys dancing in front of others while playing music. It’s clear that Jacky is gaining a lot more confidence than she ever had while living on the street in London. Her confidence is raised even more when she discovers she’s excellent at sewing and makes uniforms for her and the other ship’s boys. Jacky is constantly crying or holding back tears and having emotional outbursts. When the crew boards a pirate ship Jacky kills a man and is then known as Bloody Jack. Even after killing a man she still claims to be a major coward and is uncomfortable with all the attention that she is receiving for this bloody deed. One of the ship’s boys is killed in the fight and Jacky feels the hardships of death all over again. Part three starts as ship heads for the Caribbean Sea. Jacky is bea t up by a midshipmen named Biffil and Jacky is put in the sick ward for her injuries. A crew member Bill Sloat threatens Jacky and her sea dad Liam Delaney tries to protect her, and more fighting breaks out. With all of the fighting going on in the ship which seems to revolve around Jacky, the other ship’s boys distance themselves from her and Jacky feels even more alone. Jacky begins to sleep in the rope locker and stops singing and dancing all the time and calling attention to herself, she becomes very lonely and does all of her chores in solace and hides from others in the crevices of the ship. Sloat tries to sexually assault Jacky and Jacky protects herself by stabbing him with her shiv, and he stumbles overboard. Liam is put on trial for the murder and he is going to be hanged. Jacky wracked with guilt intervenes and cries and screams and then confesses to stabbing Sloat. She is put in confinement and thinks that she

Salary and benefits of becoming a financial manager Essay

Salary and benefits of becoming a financial manager - Essay Example nagers is customarily expected to rise based on their expertise in various specialties ranging from strategic planning, financial analysis, forecasting and financial modelling. Consequently, financial managers are expected to take home an annual income averaging at about $83,000 to 130,000 after a being on the job for a duration of about ten years. According to input from payscale.com, financial managers not only take home attractive wages, but similarly smile to the bank due to the direct and indirect benefits that they take home. In highlighting some of the direct benefits that come with the job, payscale.com precisely reports, â€Å"Average Finance Managers in the United States make around $83K per year. Individual bonuses, profit sharing and commission for Finance Managers — as high as $19K, $13K and $87K, respectively† (Pay Scale). Apart from the benefits highlighted, the managers indirectly benefit from other remunerations like medical coverage for entitled family members, as well as a perfect savings plan, which ensures that their retirement is well catered for (US News). Novack, Janet. 6 Pointed Questions to Ask Before Hiring a Financial Advisor. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved from:

Libor Scandal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Libor Scandal - Essay Example The dishonesty that was exposed by the authorities was very shocking and that the ultra conservatives needed to exploit the public by weeping into public gallery. When the authorities ignore incessant warnings about the true health of the system, they merely choose to be on the sidelines yet the problem continues to spiral out of control. The society must constantly drive for more control, through several bodies and commissions and their agencies, they seem to coil under the weight pressure of such scandals. The system of relationship between the authorities and business is a network of personal interests complicated by the mutual rules and regulation governing such a relationship and underpinned by a culture of ‘too big to fail’. The authorities must use their discretions to punish those manipulating the system for profit fully, and this must be conducted without fear and favor. As a consequence the most important lesson the society should have learned from the Libor sc andal is the perpetrators going out of business, but then again this might cause further pain for non- participants of the scandal such as their customers and shareholders. However, the real perpetrators such as the traders and the brokers should feel the full force of the law for their actions in manipulating the Libor rate; therefore, they must be charged with criminal offence. When people argue about the evils of capitalism, they fail to notice that the system cannot manipulate itself; it takes the people effort to do that. The writer of the post decries the weight that the system carries, he notes when a scandal breaks out, the system bears the blame yet people cause such scandals. On the other hand,... When people argue about the evils of capitalism, they fail to notice that the system cannot manipulate itself; it takes the people effort to do that. The writer of the post decries the weight that the system carries, he notes when a scandal breaks out, the system bears the blame yet people cause such scandals. On the other hand, the Business Week claims that the Libor scandal had the consequence of destroying the entire worlds’ financial structure; this is because several people relied on the Libor rate as the benchmark rate. The rate is standard for over 360 trillion of securities loans including students and bonds, and its manipulation might have enormous results. The paper reported that there are several lawsuits filed seeking compensation from the world’s top banks such as Bank of America, JP Morgan Chase, Barclays, and Citigroup amongst other banks. Predictably, the banks moved to court to counter the suit by application to the court for dismissal of the suit, and these banks faced an uphill task of winning back their clients back after the enormity of this scandal was revealed. Consequently, these banks are likely to face protracted cases in court by aggrieved parties from all over the world at least thirteen different suits have been filed in the US. The paper further persuades the investors not to take lightly the importance of the issue ‘Investors should not minimize the importance of this matter’. The authorities must always have the interests of the wider public at heart.

Budget paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Budget paper - Essay Example 132). With a strategic plan in place, what the organization needs is a budget – a detailed quantitative plan to guide its operations in the near future. The aim of this paper is to develop a strategic plan and a budget for an academic institution, specifically Cornell University, utilizing different factors such as demographics, affordability, financial aid, consortiums and collaborations, intercollegiate athletics, community involvement, and standards and accountability. Cornell University was founded in 1845 by Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White (Cornell University 2009). It is the â€Å"federal land-grant institution of New York State, a private endowed university, a member of the Ivy League/Ancient Eight, and a partner of the State University of New York. It has been described as the first truly American university because of its founders revolutionarily egalitarian and practical vision of higher education, and is dedicated to its land-grant mission of outreach and public service.† (ibid.) As of fall of 2007 the number of enrollees totaled 20,833 with 65% comprising undergraduate registrants. Of the total number of undergraduates (13,510), 51% are male and 49% female. A total of 31% of the enrollees come from New York, followed by 17% from Middle Atlantic origins and 10% from the Far West. The number of students receiving need-based grant aid was 6,008. In addition, 70 financially independent students received need-based aid. Of the tot al number of degrees granted (6,068), a total of 57% or 3,467 comprise bachelor’s degrees, followed by 1,713 or 28% master’s degrees. At Cornell, a collaborative culture is enhanced through several identified areas of excellence, to wit: Social Sciences, Life Sciences, Sustainability, Humanities, Ithaca - Weill Cornell Initiatives, International Programs, Law and Technology, and Information Science. Students are encouraged to be of service in their local community by easy

The Role And Importance Of Ethical Behaviour Philosophy Essay

The Role And Importance Of Ethical Behaviour Philosophy Essay Ethical behaviour as it relates to the Counselling and Consulting Psychologist is a matter of life and death. Good ethical decisions lead to life, vibrancy and growth of the psychological practice. On the other hand, if a psychologist continues to make unethical decisions, especially where the right choice is evident and fairly easy to make, it is almost certain that his practice will not continue for very long. The psychologist will often be faced with situations that require sound ethical decision making ability. Arriving at the appropriate course of action to take when facing an ethical dilemma, however, can be a real challenge. The American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct to assist the psychologist when faced with such dilemmas. The psychologist must ensure that the power and authority that comes with the profession are not misused, nor abused. It is also up to him/her to maintain boundaries and professional distance. Ensuri ng ethical behaviour is the responsibility of the psychologist, although he will not be alone in this venture, as psychologists seek to spur each other on to ethical behaviour. Suppose that as a psychologist during psychotherapy, a client disclosed that he was planning to kill a woman who had refused his advances. What should you do? This is clearly an ethical dilemma that you would be faced with. On one hand, you are well aware that the information a client supplies in therapy should be confidential, that is, the information is strictly between therapist and client, and should not be disclosed to anyone else. On the other hand, you also know this person well enough to worry that he might actually murder the woman in question. (Baron, 2001) What to do? Dictionary.com defines ethics as the rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group, culture, etc.; hence the terms medical ethics, Christian ethics and professional ethics. Ethics span every arena of our lives, whether we are in the helping professions or not, and at some point, we will all face an ethical dilemma. An ethical dilemma is a situation in which there is mental conflict about a decision to be made, because obeying one imperative may lead to transgressing another. When one becomes engaged in a discipline, an organization, or a job, he/she usually seeks to find out what the parameters are for operating within the particular group what the boundaries are, what the expectations are. In other words, what the ethical guidelines are for performing the given task. The American Psychological Association (APA) has established an Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, also referred to as the Code of Ethics, which serves as an ethical guide to members of the helping professions, especially psychologists. The Jamaica Psychological Society in its effort to advance psychology as a discipline and profession (Jamaica Psychological Society, 2007) has adopted this code with a few minor modifications. The APA Code of Ethics for psychologists is based on five general principles, from which all the standards are developed. The first principle is beneficence and nonmaleficence. This means that the psychologists aim is to benefit the persons with whom they work, while, in the process, does no harm to them. The psychologist needs to always be mindful of the clients needs. In essence, their job is to put the clients needs above their own. According to Corey (2005), our professional relationships with our clients exist for their benefit (p. 37), and so the Code of Ethics encourages the counsellor to strive to be aware of any possible effect that their mental and physical state may have on his/her ability to help the client, and take the appropriate steps to take care of themselves. The second principle of the Code of ethics is fidelity and responsibility. Fidelity speaks to the fact that the psychologist seeks to establish a trusting relationship with the clients, whether the client is an individual, a group or an organization. To this end, the counsellor is well aware that the information shared by the client in therapy is strictly confidential. Confidentiality is central to developing a trusting and productive therapeutic relationship, according to Corey (2005). He notes also that it is both an ethical and a legal issue. No meaningful therapy can occur without the clients trust in the privacy of their disclosures to their counsellors, and so professionals are responsible to define and determine the degree of confidentiality that can be promised. The therapist has an ethical responsibility to discuss with the client the nature and purpose of confidentiality early in the counselling process. The client should also be made aware that the counsellor may discuss c ertain aspects of the relationship with a counsellor or colleague. The counsellor would also be aware that confidentiality must be broken when it becomes evident that the client might do serious harm to either himself or others, and of course, the client would be so informed. This is what happened in the true case used to open this paper. The therapist chose to break confidence and inform his supervisor of the clients revelations. The client was arrested. However, after promising to stay away from the woman in question, he was released. Two months later, he stabbed the woman to death. The parents of the woman sued the therapist and the university where he worked for failing to protect their daughter. This was clearly a complex issue involving confidentiality. Here, ethics and the law were walking a thin line. Corey (2005) also notes that there is a legal requirement to break confidentiality in cases involving child abuse, abuse of the elderly and of dependent adults. (p. 41) Fidelity also speaks to the right of informed consent, which is also an ethical and legal requirement, and is an integral part of the therapeutic process. Providing individuals with necessary information so that they can make informed choices can lead to greater cooperation on the part of the client. Because the therapist takes the time to educate the client about his/her rights and responsibilities, the client is empowered while a trusting relationship is being built. Corey (2005) identifies some aspects included in the process of informed consent as the general goals of counselling; the responsibilities of the counsellor toward the client; the responsibilities of the client; limitations and expectations to confidentiality; legal and ethical parameters that could define the relationship, the qualifications and background of the practitioner; the fees involved; the services the client can expect; and the approximate length of the therapeutic process (p. 40). The psychologist is responsible, not only for himself or herself as a professional, but also for colleagues. As such, psychologists are concerned about their colleagues compliance with ethical standards as well. The practicing psychologist is mindful of his/her professional responsibility to the organization and community in which he/she works, and accepts responsibility for behaviour. Principle number three of the Code of Ethics stresses integrity. The code encourages the psychologist to do everything in his/her power to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology (APA, 2010). The psychologist should not attempt to cheat, defraud or be dishonest in any way, especially if such behaviour may lead to the client being harmed. The fourth principle on which the Code of Ethics is based is that of justice. In other words, fairness is the name of the game. Kitchener (1984) points out that the formal meaning of justice is treating equals equally and unequals unequally but in proportion to their relevant differences (p.49). This means that if someone is treated differently by the psychologist, it is because there is a clear and appropriate reason for that treatment. For example, if a client is determined to be unable to make certain decisions as it relates to their therapy because of some mental challenge, then the psychologist would treat this client somewhat differently from how someone who is fully able to make such decisions is treated. In addition to treating clients fairly, the psychologist is also cognizant of the fact that everyone is entitled to access and benefit from psychology and its contributions o the society. According to the code of ethics, psychologists also ensure that they are just as it relates to their own limitations of expertise and their competence. They are not to portray themselves, or allow themselves to be portrayed as a specialist in areas that they are not. The psychologist must also be non-exploitative. There are many ways that a client may be exploited, but I think in particular now of sexual misconduct. Ethics codes do not condone this activity in any form. There are many reasons for this, including the fact that if the therapist surrenders to sexual attraction with the client, he/ she is making the needs of the client secondary to their own; the therapist who engages in such a relationship can no longer remain objective in making therapeutic judgments about the client; and some clients might not be able to make sound decisions about forming intimate relationships (Baron, 2001). The final principle underpinning the Code of Ethics is respect for peoples rights and dignity. This underscores the justice principle and recognizes the humanness of each person regardless of gender, race, social status and such other distinguishing factors. The psychologist is careful not to allow personal biases to impair his treatment as it relates to such persons. The psychologist is also responsible to be aware of, and respect cultural, individual and role differences, and treat individuals accordingly, where required, based on the group of which they are a part. The whole matter of ethics for the counselling and consulting psychologist includes a vast array of subtopics and little areas that sometimes may not even be thought of until they arise within the client-therapist relationship. In all honesty, while I sat in Professional Ethics class for the weekend of June 25-27, 2010, I was introduced to, and thought of, so many ways that a therapist can make mistakes and slip up in the profession. It appeared to me that the psychologist is required to be almost a perfect person and so much is demanded of this individual, because at every turn, he/she must be cognizant of how their behaviour can affect the client and the community in which they work. It appeared to me that there are so many instances in which the counsellor, if not very sensitive, can behave unethically. More than one lecturer mentioned that they have been to social events where they have been in the company of clients. The lecturer/psychologist felt that it would be safer for her to leave the social event rather than have the client be uncomfortable. One lecturer was careful to note, however, that it is not always possible to excuse oneself from such events. In such cases, if the therapist thinks that the client might need a reassuring word that although they are familiar with the same persons, there will be no discussion of the clients issues, then they would find some private time to talk with the client. I noted with interest, too, that in the Code of Ethics, under section one (1) that deals with Resolving Ethical Issues, the first loyalty of the psychologist lies with the code. For example, Section 1.02a Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority, the code states that: If psychologists ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, other governing legal authority, psychologists make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take steps to resolve the conflict. If the conflict is unresolvable via such means, psychologists may adhere to the requirements of the law, regulations, or other governing legal authority. (p.4) It would appear that the grounds on which most lawsuits are brought against psychologists is as it concerns unethical behaviour. This further underscores the point that the counselling and consulting psychologist needs to clarify his values, and take the ethical guidelines for both his organization and profession very seriously. The counselor will find that interpreting the ethical guidelines of the professional organization and applying them to particular situations demand the utmost ethical sensitivity (Corey, 2005). There will be times when the decision to be made is clear and easy; but there will be times when the decision is difficult, and has implications for further actions, and even for the counsellor, as in the mentioned case. The counsellor will struggle sometimes to decide how to act in ways that will further the best interests of the client. However, the psychologist is not operating, and should not operate in a vacuum. The psychologist has the option of consulting with other colleagues, and with supervisors. Corey (2005) notes that the counsellor should also keep à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ informed about laws affecting your practice, keep up-to-date in your specialty field, stay abreast of developments in ethical practice, reflect on the impact your values have on your practice and be willing to engage in honest self-examination. (p. 37) Various authors have posited ethical decision making models to assist the counsellor when faced with an ethical dilemma [e.g. Van Hoose and Paradise (1979), Kitchener (1984), Stadler (1986), Haas and Malouf (1989), Forester-Miller and Rubenstein (1992), Sileo and Kopala (1993) and Corey, Corey and Callanan, (2003)]. The steps to follow are generally the same and are listed below. Identify the problem or dilemma. Identify the potential issues surrounding the dilemma, e.g. legal issues Consult the relevant Codes of Ethics for guidance on the matter. Determine the nature and dimensions of the dilemma. This includes considering the general principles of the APA code of Ethics, reviewing relevant professional literature, consulting with experienced colleagues or supervisors and consulting your professional Board or Association. Generate potential courses of action. Consider the potential consequences of all options for both therapist and client. Choose what seems to be the best course of action, implement it, and follow up the outcomes and determine if further action is necessary. This all important matter of making sound ethical decisions in the counselling and consulting practice is not to be taken lightly by the psychologist. At every point along the practice, the counsellor is making some ethical decision. Consulting with the code of ethics and with colleagues and supervisors can help the psychologist to stay on track as he/she continues in the practice of helping.

Ib Economics Comentary

IB ECONOMICS – INTERNAL ASSESSMENT FRONT COVER School code: Luanda International School * Candidate Name: Noel Castellanos * Candidate Number: * Teacher: Sebastian Sanogueira * Title of the article: China's inflation falls to 1. 8 per cent, giving Beijing more room to stimulate slowing economy * Source of the article: Canadian Businesses http://www. canadianbusiness. com/article/94646–china-s-inflation-falls-to-1-8-per-cent-giving-beijing-more-room-to-stimulate-slowing-economy (accessed on: 27/08/2012) Date the article was published: 09/08/2012 * Date the commentary was written: 01/09/2012 * Word Count: 774 * Section of the syllabus the article relates to: Macroeconomics When talking about macroeconomics, two of the main goals of the government are to keep inflation low and constant and keep the economy growth high and stable. Inflation can be define as a persistent, substantial rise in the general level of process related to an increase in the volume of money and resul ting in the loss of value of currency and economic growth can be defined as a steady growth in the productive capacity of the economy.These two goals go hand on hand, as in many ways they depend on each other. The last few years China has experienced a high rate of inflation mainly due to a 2. 4% rise in food prices, which has provoked a slowdown in the economic growth of the country. This was caused because the aggregate supply of the country decreased. Aggregate supply is defined as the total supply of goods and services produced within an economy at a given overall price level in a given time period.The decrease of the aggregate supply caused a shift in the short run aggregate supply curve to the left, and consequently increased prices and decreased the real output of the economy, slowing the economic growth, as shown in the graph below. The decrease of the real output would probably lead to higher unemployment rate, since companies would not have the same ability to pay all of t he employees because companies are not making as much money, so cuts would have to be made. Unemployment rate is defined as the percentage of the work force that is unemployed.Chinese manufacturing barely grew in July. The reason for these was because the high prices eventually led to a decrease on the aggregate demand, as people would try to spend less and save more, shifting the aggregate demand to the left (AD – AD1). Aggregate demand is define as the total  amount  of goods and services demanded  in the economy at a given overall price level and in a given time period. With a decrease in aggregate demand and aggregate supply, the real output would decrease even more, affecting the money spent in the manufacture of the country. This is shown in the graph below.What China has been trying to do to increase the economic growth is to cut interest rates, and pump money into the economy through high spending on building low-cost housing and other public works. By cutting i nterest rates, people are more willing to borrow money and spend it in the economy, increasing the economic growth of the country. In August inflation fell to 1. 8%, from a 2. 2% of the previous month and even higher inflation rate the previous year. With the lower inflation rates, the government has more room to make cuts in the interest rates and take other measures to increase the economy.The problem with this is that the decrease of the steady decrease of inflation can make China to enter in a period of deflation. Deflation can be defined as a general decline in prices. This can potentially be very dangerous for the economy. The reason being that because of the prices decreasing, consumers would save money expecting lower prices, decreasing aggregate demand, shifting the aggregate supply curve to the left (AD – AD1) decreasing the average price level and the real output, which would lead to decrease in aggregate demand shifting the aggregate supply curve to the left (SRAS – SRAS1). This would create even more deflation and repeat the same process again, making worst and worst creating a downward spiral, as shown in the graph below. This would create very high unemployment, as companies? revenues and wages would get lower and lower, and economic growth would decrease even more. In many ways, and according to this evidence, deflation is a far worst case than high inflation, since both have almost the same effect, but deflation is more drastic.The decline of inflation is mainly due to a fall in commodity prices. So to avoid a case of deflation, the Chinese government needs to be very cautious about the economic growth of the economy, because the fastest the increase in the economic growth, the fastest the increase of the prices in commodity prices, making this way, a steady inflation rate in the economy. To keep the economic growth the government could spend more money in the infrastructure of the country, because this would make the consumers m ore confident on spending money.Also the government could try to decrease unemployment by creating job training programs and injecting money to companies, so that they employ more. And finally the government should cut interest rates as much as they can. Bibliography: â€Å"Saturday Sep 1. †Ã‚  Investopedia a Educating the World about Finance. N. p. , n. d. Web. 01 Sept. 2012. ;lt;http://www. investopedia. com/;gt;. Dictionary. com. Dictionary. com, n. d. Web. 01 Sept. 2012. ;lt;http://dictionary. reference. com/;gt;.

Disclosure issues- voluntary versus mandatory

Now a day’s most of the companies are trying to find out ways to attract as much capital as possible. With the continuation to wards market globalisation the urge to introduce harmonise global accounting standards have been increased. In order to attract larger amount of capital in the different regions of the world it is important for the companies to present the information in the financial statements, which is understandable by a diverse group of people. Most of the world organisations are trying to find out ways towards the general standards.The formation of IASC in 1973, was the result of such efforts by different countries including Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Netherlands, UK and US. This international body has issued more than 30 International Accounting Standards and has given a general presentation of the framework of the preparation and information availability of information in the financial statements. Although the organisation has adopted English as its formal language but the standards are translated into many other languages used in the world to make them understandable by as many people as possible.The main hindrance in the way of the use of common standards between the nations is that they are not legally imposed. The use of International Accounting Standards is a voluntary act of the countries. (Taylor & Pincus, 2002; p. 39) 2. Definition of Risk: Smith (1999) defines risk as a decision expressed by a range or possible outcomes with attached probabilities. When there is a range of possible outcomes but no assumed probabilities, there is only uncertainty (ibid. ).Hertz & Thomas (1984) have suggested that â€Å". Risk means uncertainty and the results of uncertainty†¦ risk refers to a lack of predictability about problem structure, outcomes or consequences in a decision or planning situation. † Risk is defined, as a bad notion is the most important stimulants for life. Uncertainty, far from being a symptom of im perfection, is in fact a natural property of economics, indeed, probably of all life systems . . .. Uncertainty is the name of the game in the service economy. (Giarini, 2000)According to (Feynman, 1998) it is in the admission of ignorance and the admission of uncertainty that there is hope for the continuous motion of human beings in some direction that doesn't get confined, permanently blocked, as it has so many times before in various periods in the history of man. † Adams (1995) defines risk as the â€Å"balancing act† in which the actors â€Å"balance the expected rewards of their actions against the perceived costs of failure† in a world in which both it and our perceptions of it are constantly being transformed by our effect on the world and its effect on us.In a ISO/TMB Risk Management Terminology Paper (1999) risk is defined as combination of the probability of an event and its negative or positive consequences,† The royal Society (1983) defined ri sk as â€Å"a particular adverse event occurs during a stated period of time, or results from a particular challenge. † Importance of Risk Disclosure: Murphy (1999) sees Financial reporting and financial statements in particular can be thought of as a lens through which one could view a business.Financial reporting provides a broader view of the business than that provided by financial statements only. In other words, financial reporting encompassed financial statements, but it is not limited to financial statements. It is assumed that by providing information that meets the needs of investors and creditors, the company also meet the information needs of other external parties, it would be able to provide superior information if it treated each potential group of external users separately and prepared different information for each group.This approach is impractical, however, and the company instead out for preparing what is referred to as general-purpose information that we believe is useful to multiple user groups. With the change in the economic environment the list of factors of production has included intangible assets such as information and knowledge. The intangible assets are replacing the old sets of assets. â€Å"In order to keep on delivering profits the business must keep on investing in different projects in order to improve their organizational capabilities.These investments improve the capabilities of the business to respond to the customer demands, the external contacts of business reduces the risks attached to the products, internal integration improve the productivity of organization continuous experimenting not only improve the value creation but also enhance the image of the organization in business. These investments are very important for the businesses to survive it is necessary to measure the cost, inventory, space and quality savings measured by traditional capital budgeting systems.Most of the traditional accounting techniques measure the future flow of income by undertaking an investment which is not easy to calculate since the stream of income is expected to increase in future and the managers cannot decide to assign the right value to the future benefit. Rather than that it is easier to the calculate investment. This is due to the difficulty the future organisation face in calculating the future benefits; most organisations normally do not undertake new investments. (Enterweb, 2005)The use of intangible assets has created difficulties on the other hand also. People believe in what they see. The process of interaction of ideas and assets has been revolutionised. Developing trust and understanding with stakeholders is very important in order to turn knowledge in value. Today, the companies are required to report the performances not only on financial basis but also should under cover the issues such as vision, strategy, risks, value drivers, KPIs etc.The founders of the Global Association of Risk Profes sionals (GARP), Lev Borodovsky and Marc Lore, wrote in Risk Professional, â€Å"no matter what types of methods are used, the key to risk management is delivering risk information, in a timely and succinct fashion, while ensuring that key decision makers have the time, the tools, and the incentive to act upon it. † (Lev & Lore, 1997) Externally reported financial information is largely historical in nature. It looks back in time and reports the results of events and transaction that already have occurred.While historical information is very useful in assessing the future, the information itself is more about the past than it is about the future. A comparison of the historical trends with the future trends can be found helpful in better understanding of the information by the shareholders and other related people. (Financial Economists Roundtable, 1996) The improvement in public scrutiny and controlled market discipline is largely dependent upon the meaningful and accurate dis closure of information.This not only helps the shareholders but also helps the organisation to conduct business in a safe and efficient manner by achieving their targets through improving their risk management processes. The researchers find many gaps in the appropriate disclosure of risk by the organisations. Many surveys have been conducted, a wide variety of studies and interviews from the information users and shareholders have pointed out towards gaps in the currently disclosed information. The demand of provision of accurate and timely information is increasing.Business reporting effect people from every work of life an effective allocation of resources strengthens an economy by promoting productivity, innovations and an efficient and liquid market. Adequate information plays an important role in reporting the risks and opportunities of investing in business venture. To make effective decisions people need accurate information. The completeness and timeliness of information en hances the probability of taking the most appropriate decisions by the investors.Perhaps the foremost social and ethical responsibility levied upon private and public organisation in recent decades is the adoption of fair and just accounting practices. This responsibility is being increasingly codified in laws and various accounting standards. Its influence is becoming increasingly pervasive through a constant series of new and improved standards as well as steady enlargement in the size and scope of administering agencies.The voluntary disclosure of information by the companies will lead to the competitive advantage for the company in the market and will provide help to gain enormous amounts of capital all over the world. US Regulations for Risk disclosure: The US GAAP was founded in 1930 after one year of the historical depression in the US stock market in 1929. Till 1934 the companies kept on disclosing the information voluntarily. SEC was established in 1934 with the authority t o establish the accounting standards but also to make sure that these standards are used in the preparation of the disclosures.Since the issue was very complex the private sector also started assisting the SEC in 1938 in order to settle the accounting standards. The most important and unique characteristic of the US GAAP is that its strength is tested in the market in which retail investors with banks and entrepreneurs invest. Now FASB is responsible to set US accounting standards. The ultimate responsibility of protecting the interest of the financial information users lies on SEC and it is fulfilling its functions since decades by constantly forming and developing set of accounting standards according to changing needs.A history of 70 years of interpretation and implementation of US GAAP in different industries has make it one of the most reliable and applicable set of standards. This application of 70 years has helped the accounting practitioners and professionals in filling the gaps and flaws in these standards which has not make them perfect but improved their reliability and tested their strength. The main hurdle in the way of adoption of IFRS for US is that the application and strength of IFRS is not tested for as long as the US GAAP.IFRS are relatively newly developed as compare to US GAAP. The decision to change the US GAAP into the IFRS cannot be taken in a snapshot the process will be time taking, as a huge change is needed to be brought. The EU adoption of the IFRS was very steady and easier as compare to the US. This is because the unification of 25 countries in a union with different economic, cultural and social background is a big task in itself hence the change of accounting standards is a relatively important but small part of it.Despite all the differences in the financial market environment the U. S see the implementation of the IFRS as an opportunity to implement and introduce the better standards to improve the creditors accessibility. Th e process of convergence has started of the U. S GAAP in the IFRS, which will come to success if mutual consensus will be developed. The cutting edge IFRS has that they have prepared by the most experienced and brilliant accounting professionals but has a negative point of not having a long history of implementation and strength testing.International Accounting Standards: In the January of the year 2006 the accounts of all the listed companies shifted to the International Financial Reporting Standards. Under the International Financial Reporting standards all the listed companies should present their fair information regarding the company’s financial position, performance and cash flows. Despite the pressure from the International accounting agencies, some of the Governments are still reluctant to impose International accounting standards in their stock markets.Although there are big differences in the accounting standards in most of the economies of the world but the main ai m of all the accounting systems is to ensure fair and transparent corporate governance and financial reporting. The adoption of the International standards will lead to decrease in the accounting scandals and increase the adoption of common standard all over the world. Conclusion: Degree of Information varies largely from institution to institution. The amount of information made available to the shareholders largely depends upon the volume of financial instruments and the type of financial instruments used by the company.It is estimated that the shareholders of a financial institution is more required to have the risk related information as compare to that of the shareholder of an industrial company. Financial risks are the important part of the financial business operations on the other hands it is generally a by-product of an industrial company’s daily business. At the very minimum, a company should keep shareholders informed about the types of financial instruments used a nd their purposes.It must make a distinction between instruments that are used for hedging and those that are not, as well as the relevant accounting policies. It should disclose the notional principal of these instruments, their maturity, cash requirements, market value and credit risk. It should also tell shareholders how the firm monitors the values of these instruments. Where possible, firms should also disclose the firm’s market risks; if quantitative information is not possible then a qualitative discussion should be included. (13 Questions on Risk Management)

Definition of Clipping in Linguistics

Definition of Clipping in Linguistics In morphology, clipping is the process of forming a new word by dropping one or more syllables from a polysyllabic word, such as cellphone  from cellular phone.  In other words, clipping refers to part of a word that serves  for  the whole, such as  ad  and  phone from advertisement and telephone,  respectively.  The term is also known as a  clipped form, clipped word, shortening, and truncation. A clipped form generally has the same denotative meaning as the word it comes from, but its regarded as more colloquial and informal. Clipping also makes it easier to spell and write many words. For example, a clipped form may replace the original word in everyday usage- such as the use of  piano in place of pianoforte. Examples and Observations Some of the most common products of clipping are names- Liz, Ron, Rob, and Sue, which are shortened forms of  Elizabeth, Ronald, Robert, and Susan,  say  W. OGrady, J. Archibald, M. Aronoff, and J. Rees-Miller in their text  Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. They note that clipping is especially popular in the speech of students, where it has yielded forms like prof for professor, phys-ed for physical education, and  poli-sci for political science. However, many clipped forms have also been accepted in general usage: doc, ad, auto, lab, sub, porn, demo, and condo. The authors add that: A more recent example of this sort that has become part of general English vocabulary is fax, from facsimile (meaning exact copy or reproduction). Other examples of clipped forms in English include biz, caps, celebs, deli, exam, flu, gator, hippo, hood, info, intro, lab, limo, mayo, max, perm, photo, ref, reps, rhino, sax, stats, temp, thru, tux, ump, veep, and vet. Clipping Basics As noted, clipped words form through a social process, such as students preferring to use shortened forms of common terms, as noted in Contemporary Linguistics. The same kind of social forces lead to the creation of clipped words in other English-speaking countries such as Britain, notes David Crystal in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. There are also several clippings which retain material from more than one part of the word, such as maths (UK), gents, and specs....Several clipped forms also show adaptation, such as fries (from french fried potatoes), Betty (from Elizabeth), and Bill (from William). Clipped words are not  abbreviations,  contractions, or  diminutives. True, an  abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. But abbreviations often end with a period, such as  Jan.  for  January, and are clearly understood to be stand-ins for the full term.  A contraction is a word or phrase- such as thats, a form of  that has- that has been shortened by dropping one or more letters. In writing, an apostrophe takes the place of the missing letters.  A  diminutive is a word form or  suffix  that indicates smallness,  such as  doggie  for  dog  and  Tommie  for  Thomas.   Types of Clipping There are several types of clipping, including  final, initial, and complex. Final clipping, also called  apocope, is just what the term implies: clipping or cutting off the last syllable or syllables of a word to form the clipped term, such as  info  for information and gas for gasoline. Initial clipping, also called apheresis, is  the clipping of the initial part of the beginning of the word,  also called  fore-clipping, notes the Journal of English Lexicology.  Examples of fore-clipping include  bot  for  robot  and  chute  for parachute. Complex clipping, as the name implies, is more involved. It is the shortening of a compound word by preserving and combining its initial parts (or first syllables), says  ESL.ph. Examples include: Sci-fi for  science  fictionSitcom for  situation  comedyGrandma for grandmotherPerm for permanent waveShrink for head  shrinker As you see, clipped words are not always respectful terms. Indeed, some great literary figures vigorously opposed them, such as Jonathan Swift, who made his feelings clear in the tellingly named A Proposal for Correcting, Improving and Ascertaining the English Tongue, published in 1712. He saw clipping as a symptom of barbaric social forces that had to be tamped down: This perpetual Disposition to shorten our Words, by retrenching the Vowels, is nothing else but a tendency to lapse into the Barbarity of those Northern Nations from whom we are descended, and whose Languages labour all under the same Defect. So, the next time you hear or use a clipped word, do so knowing that it is considered acceptable in English but remember that these shortened terms have a long and somewhat controversial history.

Biography of Gilles de Rais 1404 - 1440

Biography of Gilles de Rais 1404 - 1440 Gilles de Rais was a French noblemen and noted soldier of the fourteenth century who was tried and executed for the murder and torture of numerous children. He is now remembered chiefly as a historical serial killer, but may have been innocent. Gilles de Rais as Noble and Commander Gilles de Laval, Lord of Rais (thus known as Gilles de (of) Rais), was born in 1404 at Champtocà © castle, Anjou, France. His parents were heirs to wealthy land holdings: the lordship of Rais and part of the Laval family possessions on his father’s side and lands belonging to a branch of the Craon family through his mother’s side. He also married into a wealthy line in 1420, uniting with Catherine de Thouars. Consequently Gilles was once of the richest men in the whole of Europe by his teens. He has been described as keeping a more lavish court than even the French king, and he was a great patron of the arts. By 1420 Gilles was fighting in the wars over the succession rights to the Duchy of Brittany, before being involved in the Hundred Years War, fighting against the English in 1427. Having proved himself an able, if brutal and low level, commander, Gilles found himself alongside Joan of Arc, taking part in several battles with her, including the famed rescue of Orlà ©ans in 1429. Thanks to his success, and the crucial influence of Gilles’ cousin, Georges de Ka Trà ©moille, Gilles became a favorite of King Charles VII, who appointed Gilles Marshall of France in 1429; Gilles was only 24 years old. He spent more time with Jeanne’s forces until her capture. The scene was set for Gilles to go on and have a major career, after all, the French were beginning their victory in the Hundred Years War. Gilles de Rais as Serial Killer By 1432 Gilles de Rais had largely retreated to his estates, and we dont really know why. At some stage his interests turned to alchemy and the occult, perhaps after an order, sought by his family in 1435, barred him from selling or mortgaging anymore of his lands and he needed money to continue his lifestyle. He also, possibly, began the kidnap, torture, rape and murder of children, with the number of victims ranging from 30 to upwards of 150 given by different commentators. Some accounts claim this ended up costing GIlles more money as he invested in occult practices which didnt work but cost regardless. We have avoided giving too much detail on Gilles crimes here, but if youre interested a search on the web will bring up the accounts. With one eye on these infractions, and possibly another on seizing Gilles’ land and possessions, the Duke of Brittany and the Bishop of Nantes moved to arrest and prosecute him. He was seized in September 1440 and tried by both ecclesiastical and civil courts. At first he claimed to be not guilty, but â€Å"confessed† under threat of torture, which is no confession at all; the ecclesiastical court found him guilty of heresy, the civil court guilty of murder. He was sentenced to death and hanged on October 26th 1440, being held up as a model of penitence for recanting and apparently accepting his fate. There is an alternative school of thought, one which argues that Gilles de Rais was set-up by the authorities, who had an interest in taking what remained of his wealth, and was actually innocent. The fact his confession was extracted through threat of torture is cited as evidence of severe doubt. Gilles wouldnt be the first European who was set up so people could take wealth, and remove power, by jealous rivals, and the Knights Templar are a very famous example, while Countess Bathory is in much the same position as Gilles, only in her case it looks very likely she was set up instead of just possible. Bluebeard The character of Bluebeard, recorded in a seventeenth century collection of fairy tales called Contes de ma mà ¨re l’oye (Tales of Mother Goose), is believed to be partly based on Breton folk tales which are, in turn, partly based on Gilles de Rais, although the murders have become of wives rather than children.

The use of a SINGLE literary device (characters) in the novel the Essay

The use of a SINGLE literary device (characters) in the novel the great gatsby by fitzgerald - Essay Example To convey the vapidity of the American Dream, Fitzgerald presents them as the type of people likely to use others and put wealth and superficial qualities above all else. With specific emphasis on descriptive phrases, the corruption of money, and valueless relationships, this essay traces Fitzgerald’s use of characterization to achieve this aim. Fitzgerald makes excellent use of descriptive phrases and subtle character elements to demonstrate the underlining vapidity of the characters’ existences. Haupt indicates descriptive phrases used to convey this superficial lifestyle. â€Å"Bootlegged gin, cigarettes placed into mouths following the clicking shut of their golden cases, gowns, suits, chauffeurs. Games, double meanings, illicit affairs, fortunes made in mysterious ways, drinking to drown an awkward moment or the quiet disappointment of your life† (para. 1). Even from the novel’s beginning epitaph, the reader understands that money and its importance is always on Gatsby’s mind: That â€Å"gold hat† includes Gatsby’s decision to change his name, Jimmy Gatz, to one that will assure him success in life. He doesn’t like his real name as representative of the old Jimmy and believes he must sacrifice truth [his name] in order to create a more positive image, one that exudes success and â€Å"self assurance† (Bloom 75). It is a superficial adjustment, since a name is only that and it is what a person does that matters, or should matter to anyone who meets him, whether in business or socially. The name change, in another sense, represents part of the gold hat he must wear to achieve success and Daisy’s love. The use of the words [gold hat] in the epigraph clearly indicates that someone [Gatsby] is telling himself to use the glitter of material deception in order to win a girl despite advise from Nick later in the story that â€Å"You can’t repeat the past† (Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby, 116). â€Å"This is precisely what Gatsby

Infrastructure in cities of Saudi Arabia, Research Proposal

Infrastructure in cities of Saudi Arabia, - Research Proposal Example Estimate the time and cost required to enforce the strategy thus identified. Literature Review: Resilience is defined as a system’s ability to maintain its function while absorbing shocks (McDaniel et al, 2008, p. 310). Functionality of the systems of infrastructure including electric power, transportation networks and sewage system means a lot to the urban society (Chang , 2009a, p. 1). The present condition of infrastructure across the world is such that 20 per cent of the present population of the world does not have clean water (Kinver, 2006 cited in Milman and Short, 2008, p. 760). Damage to infrastructure causes great losses to the region. In 1994, the Northridge highway that was damaged by earthquake caused a net loss of regional business worth $ 1.5 billion (Chang, 2009c). For long, it has been tried to design the infrastructure that could resist extreme forces. But since a couple of decades, engineers have started to make the systems of urban infrastructure resilient to natural disasters (NIST, 2008 cited in Chang, 2009b, p. 36). For natural hazards of extreme severity, it becomes extremely difficult for the structures to resist, though with correct design, resistance of the structures can be significantly increased (Minor, 2000, p. 5).